Gujarati language

Gujarati /É¡ÊŠdÊ'əˈrÉ'ːti/ (ગુજરાતી GujarātÄ« [É¡udÊ'əˈɾaːt̪i]) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the west Indian region of Gujarat. It is part of the greater Indo-European language family. Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati (c. 1100 â€" 1500 AD), which is also the ancestor of modern Rajasthani. In India, it is the chief language in the state of Gujarat, as well as an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 4.5% of population of India (1.21 billion according to 2011 census) speaks Gujarati, which amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India. There are about 65.5 million speakers of Gujarati worldwide, making it the 27th most spoken native language in the world. Along with Romany and Sindhi, it is among the most western of Indo-Aryan languages. Gujarati was the first language of Mahatma Gandhi and Vallabhbhai Patel, the "Iron Man of India". Other prominent personalities whose first language is or was Gujarati include Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Morarji Desai, Narsinh Mehta, Dhirubhai Ambani, J. R. D. Tata, Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the "Father of the Nation of Pakistan."

History

Gujarati (also sometimes spelled Gujerati, Gujarathi, Guzratee, Guujaratee, Gujrathi, and Gujerathi) is a modern IA (Indo-Aryan) language evolved from Sanskrit. The traditional practice is to differentiate the IA languages on the basis of three historical stages:

1. Old IA (Vedic and Classical Sanskrit)
2. Middle IA (various Prakrits and Apabhramshas)
3. New IA (modern languages such as Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, etc.)

Another view postulates successive family tree splits, in which Gujarati is assumed to have separated from other IA languages in four stages:

1. IA languages split into Northern, Eastern, and Western divisions based on the innovate characteristics such as plosives becoming voiced in the Northern (Skt. danta "tooth" > Punj. dānd) and dental and retroflex sibilants merging with the palatal in the Eastern (Skt. sandhya "evening" > Beng. śājh).
2. Western, into Central and Southern.
3. Central, in Gujarati/Rajasthani, Western Hindi, and Punjabi/Lahanda/Sindhi, on the basis of innovation of auxiliary verbs and postpositions in Gujarati/Rajasthani.
4. Gujarati/Rajasthani into Gujarati and Rajasthani through development of such characteristics as auxiliary ch- and the possessive marker -n- during the 15th century.

The principal changes from Sanskrit are the following:

• Phonological
  • Loss of original phonemic length for vowels
  • Change of consonant clusters to geminate and then to single consonants (with compensatory vowel length)

• Morphological
  • Reduction in the number of compounds
  • Merger of the dual with plural
  • Replacement of case affixes by postpositions
  • Development of periphrastic tense/voice/mood constructions
• Syntax
  • Split ergativity
  • More complex agreement system

Gujarati is then customarily divided into the following three historical stages:

Old GujarātÄ« (જૂની ગુજરાતી; also called ગુજરાતી ભાખા GujarātÄ« bhākhā or ગુર્જર અપભ્રંશ Gurjar apabhraṃśa, AD 1100â€"1500), the ancestor of modern Gujarati and Rajasthani, was spoken by the Gurjars, who were residing and ruling in Punjab, Rajputana, central India and parts of Gujarat. The language was used as literary language as early as the 12th century. Texts of this era display characteristic Gujarati features such as direct/oblique noun forms, postpositions, and auxiliary verbs. It had three genders as Gujarati does today, and by around the time of 1300 CE a fairly standardized form of this language emerged. While generally known as Old Gujarati, some scholars prefer the name of Old Western Rajasthani, based on the argument that Gujarati and Rajasthani were not yet distinct. Factoring into this preference was the belief that modern Rajasthani sporadically expressed a neuter gender, based on the incorrect conclusion that the [Å©] that came to be pronounced in some areas for masculine [o] after a nasal consonant was analogous to Gujarati's neuter [Å©]. A formal grammar of the precursor to this language, Prakrita Vyakarana, was written by Jain monk and eminent scholar Hemachandra Suri in the reign of Solanki king Siddharaj Jayasinh of Anhilwara (Patan).

Major works were written in various genres, for the most part in verse form, such as:

• rāsa, predominantly didactic narrative, of which the earliest known is ŚālibhadrasÅ«ri's BhārateÅ›varabāhubali (1185).
• phāgu, in which springtime is celebrated, of which the earliest is JinapadmasÅ«ri's SirithÅ«libadda (c. 1335). The most famous is the Vasantavilāsa, of unknown scholarship, which is undeterminedly dated to somewhere in 14th or 15th century, or possibly earlier.
• bārmāsÄ«, describing natural beauty during each of the twelve months.
• ākhyāna, in which sections are each in a single metre.

Narsinh Mehta (c. 1414â€"1480) is traditionally viewed as the father of modern Gujarati poetry. By virtue of its early age and good editing, an important prose work is the 14th-century commentary of Taruṇaprabha, the á¹¢aḍāvaÅ›yakabālabodhavrÌ¥tti.

Middle Gujarati (AD 1500â€"1800), split off from Rajasthani, and developed the phonemes É› and É", the auxiliary stem ch-, and the possessive marker -n-. Major phonological changes characteristic of the transition between Old and Middle Gujarati are:

• i, u develop to É™ in open syllables
• diphthongs É™i, É™u change to É› and É" in initial syllables and to e and o elsewhere
• əũ develops to É"̃ in initial syllables and to ű in final syllables

These developments would have grammatical consequences. For example, Old Gujarati's instrumental-locative singular in -i was leveled and eliminated, having become the same as Old Gujarati's nominative/accusative singular in -É™.

Modern Gujarati (AD 1800â€" ): A major phonological change was the deletion of the final É™, such that the modern language has consonant-final words. Grammatically, a new plural marker of -o developed. In literature, the third quarter of the 19th century saw a series of milestones for Gujarati, which previously had had verse as its dominant mode of literary composition.

• printing arrived in 1812; the first printed was book in 1815.
• 1822, first Gujarati newspaper: Mumbai Samachar, the oldest newspaper in India still in circulation.
• 1840s, personal diary composition: Nityanondh, Durgaram Mahetaji.
• 1851, first essay: Maniaḷī Maḷvāthi thātā Lābh, Narmadashankar Dave.
• 1866, first novel: Karaṇ Ghelo, Nandashankar Mehta.
• 1866, first social novel: Sasu Vahu ni Ladai, Mahipatram
• 1866, first autobiography: MārÄ« HakÄ«kat, Narmadashankar Dave
• 1900, first original short story: Shantidas, Ambalal Desai.

Demographics and distribution

Of the approximately 46 million speakers of Gujarati in 1997, roughly 45.5 million resided in India, 150,000 in Uganda, 250,000 in Tanzania, 50,000 in Kenya and roughly 100,000 in Karachi, Pakistan, excluding several hundreds of thousands of Memonis who do not self-identify as Gujarati. There is a certain amount of Mauritian population and a large amount of Réunion Island people who are from Gujarati descent among which some of them still speak Gujarati.

A considerable Gujarati-speaking population exists in North America, most particularly in the New York City Metropolitan Area and in the Greater Toronto Area, which have over 100,000 speakers and over 75,000 speakers, respectively, but also throughout the major metropolitan areas of the United States and Canada. According to the 2011 census, Gujarati is the seventeenth most spoken language in the Greater Toronto Area, and the fourth most spoken South Asian language after Urdu, Punjabi and Tamil. The UK has 200,000 speakers, many of them situated in the London area, but also in Birmingham, Manchester, and in Leicester, Coventry, Bradford and the former mill towns within Lancashire. A portion of these numbers consists of East African Gujaratis who, under increasing discrimination and policies of Africanisation in their newly independent resident countries (especially Uganda, where Idi Amin expelled 50,000 Asians), were left with uncertain futures and citizenships. Most, with British passports, settled in the UK. Gujarati is offered as a GCSE subject for students in the UK.

Besides being spoken by the Gujarati people, non-Gujarati residents of and migrants to the state of Gujarat also count as speakers, among them the Kutchis (as a literary language), the Parsis (adopted as a mother tongue), and Hindu Sindhi refugees from Pakistan. A distribution of the geographical area can be found in 'Linguistic Survey of India' by George A. Grierson.

Official status

Gujarati is one of the twenty-two official languages and fourteen regional languages of India. It is officially recognized in the state of Gujarat, India.

Dialects

Ethnologue lists the following dialects:

• Gamadia (Ahmedabad, Vadodari)
• Kakari
• Kathiyawadi (Saurastra)
• Kharwa
• Parsi
• Standard Gujarati
• Tarimuki
• Surati (South Gujarat)

Major dialects

In A simplified grammar of the Gujarati language (1892) by William Tisdall, major dialects of Gujarati are mentioned. These are explained below.

Hindu Gujarati

Hindu Gujarati, adopted by the Government as standard, is taught in schools.

Parsi Gujarati

Parsi Gujarati, the language as spoken and written by the Zoroastrian Parsis. This differs from ordinary Gujarati in that it admits pure Persian words in considerable numbers, especially in connection with religious matters, besides a host of Arabic and other words taken from the Persian language.

Diasporic dialects of Gujarati

Words used by the native languages of areas where the Gujarati people have become a diaspora community, such as East Africa (Swahili) which they migrated to, have become loanwords in local dialects of Gujarati.

Closely related languages

Kutchi, also known as Khojki, is often referred to as a dialect of Gujarati, but most linguists consider it closer to Sindhi. In addition, a mixture between Sindhi, Gujarati, and Kutchi called Memoni is related to Gujarati, albeit distantly.. Furthermore it is similar closely to its cousins within the Indo Aryan Language group.

Phonology

Vowels

Consonants

Writing system

Similar to other Nāgarī writing systems, the Gujarati script is an abugida. It is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. It is a variant of Devanāgarī script differentiated by the loss of the characteristic horizontal line running above the letters and by a small number of modifications in the remaining characters.

Gujarati and closely related languages, including Kutchi, can be written in the Arabic or Persian scripts. This is traditionally done by many in Gujarat's Kutch district.

Vocabulary

Categorisation and sources

These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo-Aryan: tatsam, tadbhav, and loanwords.

Tadbhav

તદ્ભવ tadbhava, "of the nature of that". Gujarati is a modern Indo-Aryan language descended from Sanskrit (old Indo-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus the "that" in "of the nature of that" refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Gujarati tadbhav words and their Old Indo-Aryan sources:

Tatsam

તત્સમ tatsama, "same as that". While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into Middle Indo-Aryan, it was nonetheless standardized and retained as a literary and liturgical language for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognizable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves.

Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. પ્રસારણ prasāraṇ means "spreading", but now it is used for "broadcasting". In addition to this are neologisms, often being calques. An example is telephone, which is Greek for "far talk", translated as દુરભાષ durbhāṣ. Though most people just use ફોન phon and thus neo-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.

So, while having unique tadbhav sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher tatsam pool. Also, tatsams and their derived tadbhavs can also co-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:

What remains are words of foreign origin (videśī), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories (deśaj). The former consists mainly of Persian, Arabic, and English, with trace elements of Portuguese and Turkish. While the phenomenon of English loanwords is relatively new, Perso-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso-Arabic influences are quite nation-wide phenomena, in a way paralleling tatsam as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo-Aryan, the Perso-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind tadbhav.

Perso-Arabic

India was ruled for many a century by Persian-speaking Muslims. As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction "that", ke. Also, while tatsam or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenized. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1) Perso-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2) more importantly, these loans have often been Gujarati-ized. dāvo - claim, fāydo - benefit, natījo - result, and hamlo - attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, o. khānũ - compartment, has the neuter ũ. Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary karvũ, a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: kabūlvũ - to admit (fault), kharīdvũ - to buy, kharǎcvũ - to spend (money), gujarvũ - to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel.

Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu dictionary, so it should be noted that Gujarati's singular masculine o corresponds to Urdu ā, neuter ũ groups into ā as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian z is not upheld in Gujarati and corresponds to j or jh. In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Gujarati and other Indo-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in Afghanistan and Central Asia, perhaps 500 years ago.

Lastly, Persian, being part of the Indo-Iranian language family as Sanskrit and Gujarati are, met up in some instances with its cognates:

Zoroastrian Persian refugees known as Parsis also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati.

English

With the end of Perso-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through British colonialism, and then streaming in on the basis of continued Anglosphere dominance in the post-colonial period. Besides the category of new ideas is the category of English words that already have Gujarati counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside with. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences. See Hinglish, Code-switching.

In matters of sound, English alveolar consonants map as retroflexes rather than dentals. Two new characters were created in Gujarati to represent English /æ/'s and /É"/'s. Levels of Gujarati-ization in sound vary. Some words don't go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. See Indian English.

As English loanwards are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as tatsam words adhere to Sanskrit. Though that isn't to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralized with Gujarati o over English "s". Also, with Gujarati having 3 genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.

• ¹ These English forms are often used (prominently by NRIs) for those family friends and elders that aren't actually uncles and aunts but are of the age.

Portuguese

The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects. Gujarati took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be (see Portuguese India, Portuguese-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka). Comparatively, the impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals. The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of ch as an affricate instead of the current standard of [ʃ].

¹ "Lengthen".

² Common occupational surname.

³ "Master".

Loans into English

Bungalowâ€"

Coolieâ€"

Tankâ€"

Grammar

Gujarati is a head-final, or left-branching language. Adjectives precede nouns, direct objects come before verbs, and there are postpositions. The word order of Gujarati is SOV, and there are three genders and two numbers. There are no definite or indefinite articles. A verb is expressed with its verbal root followed by suffixes marking aspect and agreement in what is called a main form, with a possible proceeding auxiliary form derived from to be, marking tense and mood, and also showing agreement. Causatives (up to double) and passives have morphological basis'.

Sample text

Gujarati script â€"

ગાંધીજીની ઝૂંપડી-કરાડી

જગ પ્રસિદ્ધ દાંડી કૂચ પછી ગાંધીજીએ અહીં આંબાના વૃક્ષ નીચે ખજૂરી નાં છટિયાંની એક ઝૂંપડીમાં તા.૧૪-૪-૧૯૩૦ થી તા.૪-૫-૧૯૩૦ સુધી નિવાસ કર્યો હતો. દાંડીમાં છઠ્ઠી એપ્રિલે શરૂ કરેલી નિમક કાનૂન (મીઠાના સત્યાગ્રહ) ભંગની લડતને તેમણે અહીંથી વેગ આપી દેશ વ્યાપી બનાવી હતી. અહીંથી જ તેમણે ધરાસણાના મીઠાના અગરો તરફ કૂચ કરવાનો પોતાનો સંકલ્પ બ્રિટિશ વાઈસરૉયને પત્ર લખીને જણાવ્યો હતો.

તા.૪થી મે ૧૯૩૦ની રાતના બાર વાગ્યા પછી આ સ્થળેથી બ્રિટિશ સરકારે તેમની ધરપકડ કરી હતી.

Devanagari script -

गांधीजीनी झूंपडी-कराडी

जग प्रसिद्ध दांडी कूच पछी गांधीजीए अहीं आंबाना वृक्ष नीचे खजूरीनां छटियांनी एक झूंपडीमां ता.१४-४-१९३०थी ता.४-५-१९३० सुधी निवास कर्यो हतो. दांडीमां छठ्ठी एप्रिले शरू करेली निमक कानून भंगनी लडतने तेमणे अहींथी वेग आपी देश व्यापी बनावी हती. अहींथीज तेमणे धरासणाना मीठाना अगरो तरफ कूच करवानो पोतानो संकल्प ब्रिटिश वाईसरॉयने पत्र लखीने जणाव्यो हतो.

ता.४थी मे १९३०नी रातना बार वाग्या पछी आ स्थळेथी ब्रिटिश सरकारे तेमनी धरपकड करी हती.

Transliteration â€"

gāndhījīnī jhū̃pṛī-Karāṛī

jag prasiddh dāṇḍī kūch pachhī gāndhījīe ahī̃ āmbānā vrukṣh nīche khajūrī nā̃ chaṭiyā̃nī ek jhū̃pṛīmā̃ tā.14-4-1930 thī tā.4-5-1930 sudhī nivās karyo hato. dāṇḍīmā̃ chaṭhṭhī april e śharū karelī nimak kānūn bhaṅgnī laṛatne temṇe ahī̃thī veg āpī deśh vyāpī banāvī hatī. ahī̃thīj temṇe dharāsaṇānā mīṭhānā agaro taraph kūch karvāno potāno saṅkalp briṭiśh vāīsarôyne patra lakhīne jaṇāvyo hato.

tā.4thī me 1930nī rātnā bār vāgyā pachī ā sthaḷethī briṭiśh sarkāre temnī dharpakaṛ karī hatī.

Transcription (IPA) â€"

É¡É'n̪d̪ʱidÍ¡Ê'ini dÍ¡Ê'ʱũpɽi-kəɾÉ'ɽi

dÍ¡Ê'əɡ pɾəsɪd̪d̪ʱ É–É'ɳɖi kut͡ʃ pÉ™t͡ʃʰi É¡É'n̪d̪ʱidÍ¡Ê'ie ə̤ȷ̃ É'mbÉ'nÉ' ʋɾʊkʃ nit͡ʃe kÊ°É™dÍ¡Ê'uɾnÉ'̃ t͡ʃʰəʈijÉ'̃ni ek dÍ¡Ê'ʱũpɽimÉ'̃ t̪É' _________t̪ʰi t̪É'._______ sud̪ʱi niÊ‹É's kəɾjot̪o. É–É'ɳɖimÉ'̃ t͡ʃʰəʈʰʈʰi epɾile ʃəɾu kəɾeli nimÉ™k kÉ'nun bʱəŋɡni ləɽət̪ne t̪ɛmɳe ə̤ȷ̃t̪ʰi Ê‹eÉ¡ É'pi deʃ Ê‹jÉ'pi bÉ™nÉ'Ê‹it̪i. ə̤ȷ̃t̪ʰidÍ¡Ê' t̪ɛmɳe d̪ʱəɾÉ'səɽ̃É'nÉ' miʈʰÉ'nÉ' əɡəɾo t̪əɾəf kut͡ʃ kəɾʋÉ'no pot̪É'no səŋkÉ™lp bɾiʈiʃ Ê‹É'jsəɾÉ"jne pÉ™t̪ɾə lÉ™kÊ°ine dÍ¡Ê'əɽ̃É'Ê‹jot̪o.

t̪É'.__t̪ʰi me ____ni ɾÉ't̪nÉ' bÉ'ɾ Ê‹É'É¡jÉ' pÉ™t͡ʃʰi É' st̪ʰəɭet̪ʰi bɾiʈiʃ səɾkÉ'ɾe t̪ɛmni d̪ʱəɾpÉ™kəɽ kəɾit̪i.

Simple gloss â€"

gandhiji's hut-karadi

world famous dandi march after gandhiji here mango's tree under palm date's bark's one hut-in date.14-4-1930-from date.4-5-1930 until residence done was. dandi-in sixth april-at started done salt law break's fight (-to) he here-from speed gave country wide made was. here-from he dharasana's salt's mounds towards march doing's self's resolve british viceroy-to letter written-having notified was.

date.4-from May 1930's night's twelve struck after this place-at-from British government his arrest done was.

Transliteration and detailed gloss â€"

Translation â€"

Gandhiji's hut-Karadi

After the world-famous Dandi March Gandhiji resided here in a date palm bark hut underneath a/the mango tree, from 14-4-1930 to 4-5-1930. From here he gave speed to and spread country-wide the anti-Salt Law struggle, started in Dandi on 6 April. From here, writing in a letter, he notified the British Viceroy of his resolve of marching towards the salt mounds of Dharasana.

The British government arrested him at this location, after twelve o'clock on the night of 4 May 1930.

Translation (provided at location) â€"

Gandhiji's hut-Karadi

Here under the mango tree in the hut made of palm leaves (khajoori) Gandhiji stayed from 14-4-1930 to 4-5-1930 after the world famous Dandi march. From here he gave impetus to the civil disobedience movement for breaking the salt act started on 6 April at Dandi and turned it into a nationwide movement. It was also from this place that he wrote a letter to the British viceroy expressing his firm resolve to march to the salt works at Dharasana.

This is the place from where he was arrested by the British government after midnight on 4 May 1930.

Influence on other languages

As well as words taken by other languages, Gujarati may have exerted a large influence on Saurashtra, since it is the region of which they are named from and are speculated to have migrated from is a Gujarati speaking area; early Sinhala and Divehi speakers may have migrated from Gujarat; this is supported by a Gujarati contribution in their genetics and the cultural influences which seem to strongly come from Gujurat e.g. the lion being the symbol of the Sinhalese (Lions only existed in the region of Gujurat when looking at the Indian Subcontinent.

Gujarati also has similarities to Konkani.

See also

• Gujarati literature
• Gujarati journalism
• Lists of Gujarati-language writers

References

Bibliography

Dictionaries

• Belsare, M.B. (1904) An etymological Gujarati-English Dictionary.
• Deshpande, P.G. (1974) Gujarati-English Dictionary. Ahmadabad: University Granth Nirman Board.
• Deshpande, P.G. (1982) Modern English-Gujarati Dictionary. Bombay: Oxford University Press.
• Deshpande, P.G. & Parnwell, E.C. (1977) Oxford Picture Dictionary. English-Gujarati. Oxford University Press.
• Deshpande, P.G. (1988) Universal English-Gujarati Dictionary. Bombay: Oxford University Press.
• Mehta, B.N. & Mehta, B.B. (1925) The Modern Gujarati-English Dictionary.
• Platts, J.T. (1884), A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English, London: W. H. Allen & Co .
• Suthar, B. (2003) Gujarati-English Learner's Dictionary (1 Mb)
• Turner, Ralph Lilley (1966), A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages, London: Oxford University Press .

Grammars

• Cardona, George (1965), A Gujarati Reference Grammar, University of Pennsylvania Press .
• Taylor, G.P. (1908), The Student's Gujarati Grammar, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services .
• Tisdall, W.S. (1892), A Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati Language .

Courses

• Dave, Jagdish (1995), Colloquial Gujarati (2004 ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-09196-9 .
• Gujarati Literary Academy UK (1985), Text Books 1 to 5 (1985 ed.), Navabharat Sahitya Mandir Mumbai .
• Dwyer, Rachel (1995), Teach Yourself Gujarati, London: Hodder and Stoughton .
• Lambert, H.M. (1971), Gujarati Language Course, Cambridge University Press .

Phonology

• Dave, T.N. (1931), "Notes on Gujarati Phonology", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6 (3): 673â€"678, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00093174 .
• Firth, J.R. (1957), "Phonetic Observations on Gujarati", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 20 (1): 231â€"241, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00061802 .
• Mistry, P.J. (1997), "Gujarati Phonology", in Kaye, A.S., Phonologies of Asia and Africa, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns .
• Pandit, P.B. (1961), "Historical Phonology of Gujarati Vowels", Language 37 (1): 54â€"66, doi:10.2307/411249 .
• Turner, Ralph Lilley (1921), "Gujarati Phonology", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 505â€"544 .
• Turner, Ralph Lilley (1915), "Indo-Aryan Nasals in Gujarati", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 1033â€"1038 .

Overviews

• Cardona, George; Suthar, Babu (2003), "Gujarati", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5 .
• Dalby, Andrew (1998), "Gujarati", Dictionary of languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-11568-7 .
• Mistry, P.J. (2003), "Gujarati", in Frawley, William, International Encyclopedia of Linguistics 2 (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press .
• Mistry, P.J. (2001), "Gujarati", in Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl, An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present, New England Publishing Associates .

Old Gujarati

• Bender, E. (1992) The Salibhadra-Dhanna-Carita: A Work in Old Gujarati Critically Edited and Translated, with a Grammatical Analysis and Glossary. American Oriental Society: New Haven, Conn. ISBN 0-940490-73-0
• Brown, W.N. (1938), "An Old Gujarati Text of the Kalaka Story", Journal of the American Oriental Society 58 (1): 5â€"29, doi:10.2307/594192 .
• Dave, T.N. (1935) A Study of the Gujarati Language in the XVth Century. The Royal Asiatic Society. ISBN 0-947593-30-6
• Tessitori, L.P. (1914â€"1916) "Notes on the Grammar of Old Western Rajasthani." Indian Antiquary. 43-45.

Other

• Gajendragadkar, S.N. (1972), Parsi Gujarati, Bombay: University of Bombay .
• Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2 .
• Mistry, P.J. (1996), "Gujarati Writing", in Daniels; Bright, The World's Writing Systems, Oxford University Press .

External links

• Gujarati Online Dictionary & Language Resources
• UCLA Language Materials Project: Gujarati
• Gujarati Wiktionary
• Bharatiya Bhasha Jyoti: Gujarati â€"a textbook for learning Gujarati through Hindi from the Central Institute of Indian Languages.
• English to Gujarati Dictionary

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